Material Technology and Fuel Cell

Requirement

Material technology and fuel cell system

Solution

Literature review

Material science and technology have a critical role in the development of fuel cell technology. The concept of producing electrical power from a simple electrochemical cell was demonstrated for the first time in 1839, but it took another 120 years for science to assemble a fuel cell track that exhibited very useful densities of power. This was assembled by Bacon. This literature review aims to highlight the way in which material development for the past four decades has resulted in the present status of fuel cell development, and we will also discuss about the use of Dual Active Bridge DC-DC Converter.
The fuel cell continues to supply electrical power along with producing reaction products like water and carbon dioxide as soon as the oxidants and fuel are supplied to cathode and anode respectively. Grove in his research paper in 1842 found that the small effective electrode area which was represented by a single meniscus on his platinum sheet limited the output of power of his fuel cell. It was significant that the gaseous reactants, the electrolytes, and the electro-catalytic conductor were very closer to each other on the ‘notable surface of action'. Presently, it is known by the name ‘triple phase boundary (tpb)’ interfacial region. 

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The conventional power system all across the world is facing problems like environmental pollution, gradual depletion of fossil fuel, poor energy efficiency, etc. Various sources of energy have been employed to overcome these issues; renewal and non-conventional sources of energy like wind power, solar power, biogas, natural gas, combined heat and power system, photovoltaic solar cell, fuel cell, etc. are used.  A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that is used in clean power generators as it converts chemical energy into electrical energy. Fuel cells are very efficient and do not emit more CO 2 and NO x per kilowatt of power generated thereby resulting to no air pollution at all. Recharging is not required by the fuel cell system. Its electrical efficiencies lie between the range 36% and 60% which depends upon the configured system and its types. The total efficiency can be increased to 85% by using conventional heat recovery equipment. Pradhan et al. are of the view that the previous research studies on PEM cells exhibited that the reliability and the lifetime performance can be negatively affected when the PEM cells have to handle low-frequency current ripple below 400 hertz. As per Fontes et al. fuel cells shows hysteresis at a low-frequency level of around 100 Hz because of the proximity of these low frequencies to the natural frequencies of the chemical reaction kinetics at the fuel cell electrodes. According to Ferrero et al. the hysteric behavior can result to the additional loss to the operation of fuel cells. Choi et al. conducted another research in which they state that when the significant low-frequency current ripple is imposed on fuel cells, then there is a 6% reduction in the available output power. In the recent years, Sergi et al. reported that it was seen that the cathode catalyst degraded when fuel cells are subjected to low-frequency current ripple. In the initial phase, for passive filtering of low-frequency harmonic current, dc-link capacitors are employed traditionally in the fuel cell power conditioning systems. The required capacity is too high due to the fact that dc-link capacitors play a significant role in creating an extremely low impedance to the flow of low-frequency harmonic current. To find an alternate solution Fukushima et al. said that LC network connected series can be inserted to the capacitor branch in order to create a zero-impedance branch to bypass the harmonic current of low-frequency when the resonant frequency of the LC network is turned accurately to the harmonic frequency but in this method, the inductance that is required is substantially very large and such an approach does not imply in the situation where there is an existence of multiple harmonic currents. C.Liu and Lai et al.  proposed to increase the impedance of the cell branch of the fuel, instead of reducing the impedance of the branch of the capacitor. According to Liu et al. the adoption of the proportional-resonant control results in minimizing the low-frequency ripple on the fuel cell. To ensure that the harmonic current gets completely delivered by the dc-link capacitor, the required capacitance to maintain a smooth dc-bus voltage must remain to be very large. To its contrast, due to the use of a small dc-link capacitor, there exists a large voltage ripple on the dc-bus voltage and therefore, additional control must be introduced into the inverter to minimize its effects on the output voltage of the inverter. P. T. Krein, R. S. Balog, and M. Mirjafari, C. Y. Hsu, and H. Y. Wu, and A.C.Kyritsis, N. P. Papanikolaou, and E. C. Tatakis to overcome this limitation are of the view of using the active-filter-based methods where energy storing devices like super capacitors and batteries are interfaced towards the dc voltage bus by using the dc-dc convertors. The dc-dc convertors are configured in such a way that it tightly regulate the dc-bus voltage thereby acting as a source of voltage. These can effectively be characterized by the low-output impedance which favors the flow of harmonic current. The combination of slow and fast power changes of the two branches equaling the power load changes leads to the regulation of dc-bus voltage. The difficulty is that the branch of energy storage will not compensate for the slow changes in power despite the failure of fuel cell branch to meet them because of the various reasons like fuel starvation that can result to the stability problems of the hybrid systems. The control strategy provides ample versatility because the energy storage branch is configured to regulate the dc-bus voltage thereby responding to entire power changes that are not possible by the fuel cell branch to meet them. Therefore, the fuel cell branch can be configured keeping in mind that it has to operate in load-following mode or the constant power mode depending upon the applications. 
The literature discussed above does not deal with the ripple reduction in the output rather, it is suggested to use cascade filter at the output to decrease the ripple.

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References

  • A. C. Kyritsis, N. P. Papanikolaou, and E. C. Tatakis, “A novel parallel active filter for current pulsation smoothing on single stage grid-connected AC-PV modules,” in Proc. Eur. Conf. Power Electron. Appl.,

  • C. Y. Hsu, and H. Y. Wu, "A new single-phase active power filter with reduced energy-storage capacity,” IEE Proc.–Electric Power Appl., vol. 143, no. 1, pp. 25– 30, Jan. 1996.

  • C.Liu and J. S. Lai, "Low-frequency current ripple reduction technique with active control in a fuel cell power system with inverter load," IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 22, no. 4, pp. 1429–1436, Jul. 2007. 

  • D. Liu and H. Li, “A ZVS bi-directional DC-DC converter for multiple energy storage elements,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 21, no. 5, pp. 1513–1517, Sep. 2006.

  • F. Sergi, G. Brunaccini, A. Stassi, A. Di Blasi, G. Dispenza, A. S. Arico, Ferraro, and V. Antonucci, “PEM fuel cells analysis for grid connected applications,” Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, vol. 36, no. 17, pp. 10908–10916, Aug. 2011.

  • G. Fontes, C. Turpin, R. Saisset, T. Meynard, and S. Astier, “Interactions between fuel cells and power converters influence of current harmonics on a fuel cell stack,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 22, no. 2, pp. 670–678, Mar. 2007.

  • K. Fukushima, I. Norigoe, M. Shoyama, T. Ninomiya, Y. Harada, andxbrk ,K.Tsukakoshi, “Input current-ripple consideration for the pulse-link DC-AC converter for fuel cells by small series LC circuit,” in Proc. 24th Annu. IEEE Appl. Power Electron. Conf. Expo., Feb. 15– 19, 2009, pp. 447–451.

  • P. T. Krein, R. S. Balog, and M. Mirjafari, “Minimum energy and capaci-tance requirements for singlephase inverters and rectifiers using a ripple port,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 27, no. 11, pp. 4690– 4698, Nov. 2012. 

  • R. Ferrero, M. Marracci, and B. Tellini, “Single PEM fuel cell analysis for the evaluation of current ripple effects,” IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas., vol. 62, no. 5, pp. 1058–1064, May 2013.

  • S. K. Pradhan, S. K. Mazumder, J. Hartvigsen, and M. Hollist, “Effects of electrical feedbacks on planar solid oxide fuel cell,” J. Fuel Cell Sci. Technol., vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 154–166, May2007.

  • W. Choi, P. N. Enjeti, J. W. Howze, and G. Joung, “An experimental eval-uation of the effects of ripple current generated by the power conditioning stage on a proton exchange membrane fuel cell stack,” J. Mater. Eng. Perform., vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 257–264, Jun. 2004

  • X. Liu, H. Li, and Z. Wang, “A fuel cell power conditioning system with low-frequency ripple-free input current using a control-oriented power pulsation decoupling strategy,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 159–169, Jan. 2014. 

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