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Requirement
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY: Worth 15% (research, a brief summary of the sources used which turns into the body of the essay).
FINAL ESSAY: worth 30%
Discuss health and healing in prehistoric times. What evidence do anthropologists have for types of diseases that afflicted humans before the invention of agriculture (E.g. Malaria, schistosomiasis, trypanosomiasis, tuberculosis)? What sociocultural and environmental factors affected morbidity and mortality patterns? Did prehistoric humans, say, Neanderthals, address health? How do we know?
Solution
Proposal
The paper is on health and healing in prehistoric times. The genetic study of Neanderthal has revealed that there are various risks to the life and the addictions such as tobacco is impacting the Neanderthal cousins. The study is focused towards understanding the various aspects of health and healing in prehistoric times. The next section is annotated bibliography of few literatures and then actual study.
Annotated Bibliography
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1. Agustí, J., & Rubio-Campillo, X. (2016). Were Neanderthals responsible for their own extinction?. Quaternary International.
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This paper discusses the thousands of years of the evolutionary success of Neanderthals and other aspects which have been included in the study.
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2. Bradshaw, C. J. A., Cooper, A., Turney, C. S. M., & Brook, B. W. (2012). Robust estimates of extinction time in the geological record. Quaternary Science Reviews, 33, 14-19.
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This paper discusses the rate of extinction of various species and including the one that is being discussed. The paper suggests that the extinction rate has increased. The impact of improper healing can be one of the reasons.
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3. Gilpin, W., Feldman, M. W., & Aoki, K. (2016). An ecocultural model predicts Neanderthal extinction through competition with modern humans.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(8), 2134-2139.
The discussion in this paper relates to the replacement of Neanderthals by modern humans. The reasons have been cited such as health and healing aspects and others.
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Health and Healing in Prehistoric Times
Neanderthals became extinct 20000-30000 years back. They are the species of archaic human. These species were spread across Europe, Asia and Middle East. Neanderthals had a caring feeling and strong social bond among each other towards each other. Neanderthal was genetically different from Homo sapiens (Present day modern human). They had different phenotype from the modern day human (Henry et al, 2014). From the skeletons found it has been seen that they looked stocky, barrel-chested and brutish. The Neanderthals health has been a topic to study. Some of their genetics has been passed on to us. Neanderthals originated in Africa. From there they spread to rest of the globe. They eventually had kids with the Homo sapiens. Hence our genetic has some part of Neanderthal genes. From this there, health can be studied. For example- Neanderthal gene shows a better version of blood clotting genes. This was helpful to them in healing (Sankararaman et al, 2014). This helped them in gaining quick recovery after wound and cuts which were very common in their times. They had better chances of survival.
Neanderthals are our closest relatives. Once they must have cross breed with a human. Through genetic study on modern humans, it has been found out that Neanderthal had DNA which caused skin cells to grow. This is known as keratinocytes. These usually protect them from sun and ultraviolet rays. From their genetic study it has been found that Neanderthal DNA has increased the risk of various life threatening factors like stroke, miscarriage etc. Neanderthal genes were also susceptible to depression (Callaway, 2014). Also, our tendency towards tobacco addiction is also taken from our Neanderthal cousins. We have found 12 traits in Neanderthals including the tendency of immune issues, heart attack and other blood disorder which is present in modern day human (Ko, 2016).
Hypercoagulability is a feature of Neanderthal blood. In this, the blood coagulates very fast. It prevents the entry of microbes in the wound. The faster the wound closes lesser are the chances of infection. But as this hypercoagulation was blessing in Neanderthal times, it also causes increased risk of stroke, embolism and complicated pregnancy in the modern age (Gilpin et al, 2016; Sachez et al, 2015). As in those times, there was no treatment available for these diseases Neanderthals had very lower life expectancy.
Sickle cell anaemia is a hereditary condition. It is quite possible that these genetic conditions evolved to protect our ancestors from the worse medical condition. It could cost them their life. This genetic condition took thousands of years to evolve. Sickle cell anaemia is a very severe health condition which the red blood cells took a curved crescent-like shape (Augusti and Rubio, 2016). This affects the oxygen carrying capacity of the cell. This condition also protects from malaria. It was deadly in those times. Sickle cells keep the malaria parasite out from the blood. It does not allow the malaria parasite to survive. This condition mainly affects people of African, Caribbean, middle eastern and Asian origin. Malaria is an ever present danger in these geographies (Collard et al, 2016).
Schistosomiasis , this is also known as snail fever. This is caused by parasites known as schistosomes. The disease is mainly caused when there is contact with contaminated fresh water with this parasite. It is called snail fever because these parasites are released from infected snails into the fresh water streams (Pearce et al, 2013). This generally causes bloody stools and diarrhoea. Like any other race. Neanderthal also developed and hunted in the banks of the river. From the river, they used to get food and drinkable water. As there was no concept of water treatment in those times there were many water-borne diseases prevalent. They used to drink this water causing them infection by this parasite. Although Neanderthals have spread almost all parts of the world (Bradshaw et al, 2012). But this disease condition was prevalent in ones living on the banks of rivers.
Trypanosomiasis , it is the name of several diseases , it is caused by protozoa. This is the cause of many diseases in modern human and Neanderthals. This is caused by the bite of the tsetse fly. After that, there is the development of red chancre sore. The person experiences fever, swollen lymph nodes and bloody urine. This is very common on the African continent. In the next stage of this deadly disease, there are alterations in human personality. There is a severe effect on the biological clock. There can be seizures and also difficulty in walking and talking. This disease was very common in Neanderthals. There is no such prevention of this disease. It has caused many early deaths in their race. There was no appropriate treatment of this disease. Once infected there was no way for escape from this disease. Tsetse flies were quite common in those days. There was one way for prevention i.e. to control the disease was fly control. Once the population of flies has checked the disease subdued itself.
The extinction of Neanderthals might have been caused by diseases like Herpes and tuberculosis. Tuberculosis is a bacterial disease. It generally affects lungs changing the physiology of the lungs. The signs and symptoms include fever, chills, loss of appetite weight loss and bloody sputum. In the Neanderthal Era, this disease was entirely new and surprising and they didn’t have any way to battle with it (Bradshaw et al, 2012). Once the Neanderthals migrated they got this disease. They contracted these diseases from Homo sapiens while meeting and mating. The Neanderthals had no immunity against these diseases. Neanderthal was adapted to live in tropical conditions. As they migrated out they have contacted theses diseases which are known to contribute significantly to their extinction. These infections are known to weaken their immune system. They were unable to fight for food and shelter hence became extinct.
The Neanderthal had a different immunological advantage. Which we also carry in our genes today. During evolution, the efficient defence system in us has developed. In this, the pathogens are recognised by our immune systems and destroyed. The human leukocyte antigen system evaluates whether the entered pathogen is a friend or foe. This pathogen system is a result of development in Neanderthal Era in which they were exposed to many threats and environment conditions (Pearce et al, 2013). This provided Neanderthal immunity against many pathogens. This was the evolutionary advantages they had from their ancestors.
The Neanderthal population eventually spread out and became fragment. They were attacked by much new disease. They didn’t have much immunity for these. The cause of extinction varied from one situation to another. The extinction process might have been due to many factors such as local inbreeding and strong competition from the Homo sapiens for food and shelter. The effect of environment fluctuation and changing demographic conditions also played a crucial role in the extinction of Neanderthals. There were no severe climate shifts in this era. If the records are checked there is no evidence of climate shift. Also for a global extinction, there is required a major climate shift whose evidence is not found. As Neanderthals met the modern day Homo sapiens they were contacted with many new diseases. With new unexplored geographic conditions, there were insufficient resources which did not allow them to become immune (Collard et al, 2016).
There was very strong competition for food and other resources. The Neanderthal became the genetically weaker species to adjust to the new developments hence got swapped away. There were also many cultural and behavioral differences existed between Neanderthals and Homo sapiens. The Homo sapiens could adapt themselves better to the culture and technology. Technological changes did not favour Neanderthals. For Neanderthals, nature and the landscape played a very crucial role in their extinction. As they moved out of African continent the world became a cooler place for them. They might not be able to adapt to these conditions. The living conditions became very challenging for them (Ko, 2016). The world became a very competitive place for them with a new set of diseases and introduction of the new gene pool of Homo sapiens. Modern day human genes have many genetic influences by Neanderthals. This shows crossbreeding happened at many stages in the world. The current day human brain shows many similarities with the Neanderthal brain. Genetic mapping has found that 1%-2% of our genetics still contain Neanderthal influences.
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Agustí, J., & Rubio-Campillo, X. (2016). Were Neanderthals responsible for their own extinction?. Quaternary International.
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Bradshaw, C. J. A., Cooper, A., Turney, C. S. M., & Brook, B. W. (2012). Robust estimates of extinction time in the geological record. Quaternary Science Reviews, 33, 14-19.
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Callaway, E. (2014). Neanderthal. NATURE, 507.
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Collard, M., Tarle, L., Sandgathe, D., & Allan, A. (2016). Faunal evidence for a difference in clothing uses between Neanderthals and early modern humans in Europe. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology.
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Gilpin, W., Feldman, M. W., & Aoki, K. (2016). An ecocultural model predicts Neanderthal extinction through competition with modern humans.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(8), 2134-2139.
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Henry, A. G., Brooks, A. S., & Piperno, D. R. (2014). Plant foods and the dietary ecology of Neanderthals and early modern humans. Journal of human evolution, 69, 44-54.
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Ko, K. H. (2016). Hominin interbreeding and the evolution of human variation.Journal of Biological Research-Thessaloniki, 23(1), 17.
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Pearce, E., Stringer, C., & Dunbar, R. I. (2013). New insights into differences in brain organisation between Neanderthals and anatomically modern humans. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences, 280(1758), 20130168.
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Sánchez-Quinto, F., & Lalueza-Fox, C. (2015). Almost 20 years of Neanderthal palaeogenetics: adaptation, admixture, diversity, demography and extinction. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B, 370(1660), 20130374.
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Sankararaman, S., Mallick, S., Dannemann, M., Prüfer, K., Kelso, J., Pääbo, S., ... & Reich, D. (2014). The genomic landscape of Neanderthal ancestry in present-day humans. Nature, 507(7492), 354-357.
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