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Key Topics
Requirement
Compost from waste materials
Solution
Synopsis:
The aim of this paper is to understand the composting procedures and break the ice for future studies. The paper has considered various aspects that are involved in the process of composting, be it environmental, technical, social, or procedural.
Composting activity has not gained the attention of every household till date, and the reason behind is its invisible benefits and process. This paper has tried to do in-depth study on all the activities and attentions that are required in composting along with the benefits it will provide to the individual, society, and the country as a whole.
The extensive use of composting will support environment and may lead to a better planet. As several studies have concluded that compost can improve the physical structure and bulkiness of soil which are useful for retaining rainwater that are responsible for contamination of pesticides into nearby rivers, thus, causing water pollution.
The fundamental elements of composting are an organic material, availability of oxygen, moisture level, and bacteria. Organic material includes wood chips, leaves, newspapers, and straws. Oxygen and moisture level support bacteria to break down the raw materials into desired substance.
This report on composting takes into account the various methods that are employed to conduct the activity in more environmentally sustainable manner. It has tried to look into the benefits a society can receive through the proper and extensive use of composting techniques. Benefits related to the usage of biodegradable materials have been emphasized in this report such as chemical and biological benefits.
Various methods of composting have been mentioned in detail that should be beneficial for anyone who is curious to move into the composting activity. Factors such as weather, costs, and social impacts are taken into consideration while discussing the benefits that can be derived through the use of composting methods and tools.
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Introduction:
The world has become more aware of the environmental changes, and developed countries in particular. Significant numbers of manufacturing processes have realized that development should be more sustainable and involve more recyclable materials. Compost was recognized as a transitional force in the life cycle (Environmental Research, 2013). Composting is the main key for diversion of waste from landfills and for reduction of water and soil pollution (Environmental Management, 1998). Composting is a process that offers several benefits for the landfill such as increasing the rate of decomposition and, therefore, reducing costs and greenhouse emissions from landfill. Also, Composting may improve recycling and burning operations by removing the organic material from the waste stream.
Recycling of organic waste materials is expected to support an ecosystem. Composting can be defined as a process that recycles organic waste materials for the benefit of humans and environment. Composting can be considered as a complex process, where the aerobic microbiological bacteria can convert the organic waste into beneficial compost products. The composting process can be ideal for controlling the quality of the raw materials and operational standards. Compost occurs naturally by combining biodegradable materials such as food waste, fallen leaves, livestock manures, grass clipping and a small amount of paper that are placed into a suitable environment for decomposition (Cesaro & Guida, 2015). These biodegradable materials should be mixed carefully to avoid molding, self-heating, production of odors, and attraction of vermin or deplete oxygen. There are many reflected benefits from using compost such as increased organic matter in the soil with improvement in its physical and chemical properties. Also, compost can be considered as a financially competitive process and sustainable alternative to the importing of the upper surface of the soil (EcoMENA, 2015). Also, it provides the nutrients and minerals to enhance plant growth, improve resistance to erosion and improve water-holding capacity. Hence, the habit of adding compost to the soil to each planting season can promote plant growth, restore and improve farmlands (California, 2001).
Along with the benefits mentioned above of composting, it brings in few environmental issues such as ammonia emissions, and others. High ammonia emissions can increase the eutrophication and acidification. The greenhouse gasses such as methane are normally released during composting process (Favoino, 2004). Also, the foul odor can cause many problems that are often due to deficient process management.
The aim of this project is to understand the processes that minimize and control the negative environmental effects. Also, it evaluates the feasibility of using compost from waste material for plant growth.
Benefits of Using Compost:
The organic waste materials improve soils and increase the sustainability of crop production and reduce the environmental pollution that occurs due to unhealthy waste disposal. According to Eden District Council (2005) research, there is a significant reduction of household food and drink waste that arise between 2007 and 2012. The results illustrate that the average of household waste has been reduced to approximately 21%.
The effects of chemical fertilizers are often misunderstood when compared to the compost quality. The nutrients from chemical fertilizer are used in the soil quickly but incompletely while the nutrients from compost are used slowly which can be stored for a longer period (Hoornweg et al., 2000).
Compost can improve the physical, chemical and biological properties of soils and can induce plant growth. Compost consists of nutrients such as nitrogen, potash, and phosphate that can help to keep plants healthy. The longevity of compost due to its organic material content is considered as its actual benefit. The use of compost on soils and plants can result in improved soil structure, density and porosity, eventually developing a sustainable plant root environment. Also, compost increases infiltration operation of heavy soils and consequently reduces soils erosion and runoff (US Composting Council, 2008).
Physical Benefits:
Compost can improve the physical structure and reduce the bulk density of soils. Also, improved aeration and increased its gas and water permeability will help to reduce the erosion and improve the soils ability to hold moisture (Villalba & Gabarrellm 2014). Also, it resists compaction in soils and improves the water holding capacity and stability of soils, thus reducing the risk of wind erosion during periods of drought. The addition of compost in soils can support drought resistance, and thus, it may reduce the severity of irrigation. Moreover, compost mulches can retain moisture and reduce weeds with the ability to serve as coverage layer for the soil surface. Also, compost mulches may darken the soil, which leads to increase in soil temperature that can improve seeds germination (University Of British Columbia, 2014). Compost from the waste material can help to increase the total porosity, which affects the ventilation and water movement (Cornell Waste Management Institute, 1998).
Chemical Benefits:
The addition of compost to soil can modify and stabilize the pH of the final compositing. Therefore, the occasional addition of slightly alkaline compost to an acidic soil can raise its pH. Stabilization of soil pH can increase the soil capacity for buffering, reduce the mobility of some pollutants and reduce environmental effects. Compost increases the capacity of cation exchange of soils and enables it to retain nutrients for a long period. Also, it can reduce nutrient loss by leaching. Compost products contain several macro and micronutrients and can provide nitrogen, phosphate and potash, which work as nutrients for soil and plants. Compost can affect both pH adjustment and fertilizer, and thus makes current fertilizer more active (US Composting Council, 2008).
Biological Benefits:
Compost provides soil organisms. The activity of organisms is important to produce healthy plants. Microorganisms can provide nutrient and promote root efficiency, as specific fungi help them to extract nutrients from soils. Suitable levels of organic materials can promote the growth of earthworms, which are moving through tunnels and may lead to increased water infiltration and aeration. It provides beneficial microorganisms may suppress some plant diseases such as fusarium, pythium, and nematodes (Washington State University, 2014).
The Process:
The basics of the composting process:
All composting technologies, whether it is sophisticated or simple, open or contained, needs some basic characteristics such as organic material, availability of oxygen, moisture level, and bacteria. The compost pile may contact with the soil because it will provide bacteria that is required for composting. If there is a poor drain, it may be useful to place a pallet on the compost pile (Gardeners World, 2015). The following general equation illustrates the inputs and outputs of the organic materials in the presence of oxygen.
Organic Materials + O2 + Nutrients (Bacteria) New Cells + Resistant Organic Matter + CO2 + H2O + NH3 + …. + Heat (Hoornweg et al., 2000)
Composting bacteria use carbon for energy and nitrogen for growth that can be supplied from brown and green organic materials respectively. Mixing the green and brown organic materials will help the bacteria to work well and create ideal composting. To have a controlled and effective process with minimum negative environmental effects, these parameters should be controlled (Manser & Keeling, 1996).
Organic materials:
Brown organic materials such as wood chips, leaves, newspapers, and straw are rich in carbon, poor in nitrogen and are slow to decompose because the brown materials are strict. Green organic materials such as houseplants, kitchen scraps, grass clippings and manure are high in nitrogen and moisture, and will readily decompose (Home Composting Made Easy, 2008). As a result, a supplement of the compost pile with the nitrogen will produce heat and high temperatures, which indicates that the process is working well. However, the green organic material is not recommended to be stored for a long time because it attracts pests and cause foul odors. As a result, it is recommended to be incorporated early into a compost pile. A general incorporation rule is to take one part of green materials with three parts of brown materials by using any measurement tools. A significant amount of brown materials allow oxygen to breakdown and feed the organisms, whereas a large amount of green material can result in the compost pile to be denser, smelly and slow to decompose. There are some materials that should be avoided such as weed seeds, diseased plants, bones, and fish scraps. Also, fat food such as cheese or meat should be avoided since it can attract flies and rodents. Also, cat and dog wastes are avoided because they can spread some diseases (U.S Composting Council, 2005).
In summer and spring, fresh grass clippings and other greens are abundant, but the brown material may not be enough to mix with them. As the brown leaves break down very slowly, they can be stored and mixed with green material as needed. On the other hand, in autumn, brown leaves are widely available and green materials may be hard to find. If the brown materials are not mixed with green materials, it could take a very long time to decompose (Colorado State University Extension, 2013).
Availability of oxygen:
Oxygen is important to support the breakdown of plant material by bacteria. After two weeks of making compost, the center of the pile is heated up and decomposed. Oxygen can be supplied to the void spaces using turning that is a minimum of 5-15% of the oxygen that is normally suggested in the compost pile (Environment Agency, 2002). To supply oxygen, turning the compost pile is required so that the materials at the edges are brought to the center of the pile. Repeated turning can speed up the composting process by breaking up clumps of materials and exposing fresh surfaces for successful activity of bacteria and fungi. The supply of oxygen is also closely related to the temperature controllers and the moisture of the compost pile. However, a large amount of oxygen can cool down the compost pile excessively or may lead the compost to be dried (Ministry of Agriculture and Food British Columbia, 1996).
On the other hand, decomposition can occur with or without oxygen. Excessive moisture can limit airflow through the compost pile that leads to the anaerobic decomposition that allows decomposition by fermentation. As a result, the decomposition emits foul odors and produces alcohols and acids that can damage the plants (US Composting Council, 2010).
Moisture level:
Moisture is also important for the compost pile. The best level of moisture for composting will highly depend on its ability to retain water of the composting pile mixture where the typical levels are between 45% and 50%. If the materials are too dry, the microbe’s activity may reduce and. Therefore, the process will slow down. So, adding water during dry periods or adding large amounts of brown organic materials can moisturize the compost pile. However, if the materials are too wet, the air space in the pile will reduce, and this will cause odors and loss of nutrients.
In this situation, the compost pile must turn, else the materials will dry. Water is lost when the compost is turned because of evaporation. So, the compost pile must be estimated earlier in the process, and adequate amount of water should be added (Haug, 1993).
Bacteria:
Bacteria and other microbes are the actual actors in the composting process. While composting, these microbes break down the materials into useful compost and releases carbon dioxide, heat, and water in the process. To supply more bacteria and speed up the composting process, layers of soil or finished compost may be added (Growing Culture, 2011).
The activities of these microorganisms raise the temperature above 45°C. However, the fastest decomposition rate and the optimum range are between 54°C and 65°C. The temperature above 70°C can affect the life of bacteria and may hamper the composting process. To correct the situation, turning of compost should be considered as it cools the compost pile (Ekelund & Nystrom, 2007). F
Technology:
As composting has become more popular, therefore, various technologies are designed to produce high-quality of compost without negative environment impact. The quality of compost depends on the technology used and the waste treated.
For Small Compost Process:
Household composting process is a very effective way to manage kitchen and garden wastes. There are two composters far a small yard process, which are bins and tumblers. The compost tumbler is the most efficient enclosed bin, which is a completely sealed container that can be rotated to mix the composting materials. The turning keeps the bacteria more active and prevents clumping of the composting materials. Compost tumblers are different from compost bins. The Compost bins are designed to be based on the ground, and they have open bottoms. The compost bins are low priced composter. However, they have many defects. For example, rodents can easily burrow under the composter to access to the composting materials. Also, it becomes difficult to get a pitchfork inside the bin to turn the compost pile, and therefore, it may take around 2 – 3 months to complete.
Compost tumblers can speed up the composting process to take about 6 – 8 weeks to complete (Seaman, 2000). Also, it is recommended to keep the compost pile neatly enclosed, This may lead to the odor-free environment that is well suited for urban and suburban residential properties. However, they are more expensive than compost bins because they are built with thicker materials to hold the weight, and consist of legs or bases with rollers to hold up the heavy composting materials.
Public health officials may hinder this type of composting process due to potential health problems. To overcome this concern, local governments may run some public awareness programs and encourage education on compost processes such as techniques to reduce the existence of flies and rodents.
For Large Compost Process:
There are different technologies available for the composting of the organic materials. The simplest technologies are open-air systems, windrow composting and aerated static pile composting. Currently, in the UK, windrow composting method is the dominant technology. Aerated static pile composting systems can also be seen at some places. However, in many countries, a different kind of composting technology is used, called ‘Contained Composting System.' The contained composting systems offer a more efficient process, a higher product quality, and an improved open-air windrow system. However, Contained Composting Systems need an extra capital and operational cost (Center for Integrated Agricultural Systems, 1996).
Windrow composting is mostly used in farm composting, and it usually takes around 12 to 20 weeks depending on the raw materials used (Environment Agency, 2002). Also, windrow is a common method that is not appropriate for green and kitchen wastes due to potential risks of odors and attractions of animals.
However, turning equipment has their advantages and disadvantages. For small operations it is useful to use a front-end loader for both, set up and turning the windrows. Moreover, a front-end loader incurs less cost, but it is not efficient enough for proper turning. Straddle turners are much faster and efficient equipment, but it limits the size of windrows. For large scale, it is useful to use the side cutting turners but it has high capital costs. The composting complete quickly in rotating conditioner drum but it also has high capital cost and the compost needs treatment after each turning. However, the drum composting has significant benefits (Vuorinen and Saharien, 1998).
It is important to carry out the windrow process on a concrete base with effective control over any leachate that produced by the composting. The leachate can be pumped back onto the compost pile or pumped into a tanker. To avoid the risk of water pollution, the piles must be placed under cover to prevent excess moisture levels in the rainy seasons. Also, the moisture level must be corrected after a period (U.S Environmental Protection Agency, 1994).
Most windrow systems are running in the open air. Therefore, a proper cover will protect the compost from getting too wet from rain and reduces leachate potential or odor problems. Cost is associated in providing cover, but, if windrow systems are appropriately constructed and managed, then they can work effectively without cover. Moreover, placing the windrows in a building with an air extraction and treatment system can reduce odor problems. Due to the potential problems with odor release, it is essential that a windrow composting process be located far from residential buildings (Brewer et al., 2013).
Composting process problems and solutions:
A major problem for composting plants is its odors that generate during the process. The odors emission may cause community annoyance and public opposition to composting plants. Also, it can cause health risks to employees and population in the local area (45). Volatile organic components (VOCs) and inorganic gasses (such as hydrogen sulfide and ammonia) are the most important group of chemicals that are responsible for odors emission. The most representative of volatile organic components are terpenes, which are emitted during the degradation process of plant materials (Cabeza & Stuetz, 2013). There are different techniques to reduce the VOCs emissions such as chemical stripping, thermal destruction, and biofiltration.
Biofiltration is considered to be an advantageous system in the composting industry. In many cases, biofiltration has low operating costs and can be considered as one of the most effective treatments for a large amount of waste gas streams that contain slight concentrations of odors compounds (Sadef & Bester, 2014). Biofiltration systems have been proved to be effective to treat all the odors associated with a composting and wide range of volatile organic compounds including ammonia. Frederickson et al. (2013) found that zero amounts of ammonia toxicity effects were detected at concentrations of ammonia up to 550 mg m-3, suggesting that using biofiltration can effectively remove high initial levels of ammonia in exhaust gasses. Furthermore, even moderate ammonia concentrations may inhibit removal of odorous VOCs.
However, one of the most common problems that would lead to odorous emissions from biofilters system is an abrupt change in operational conditions. This may occur because of failure in the equipment. According to Barona A. (2004), removal efficiencies can be recovered quickly by shutdown the equipment for a few days. Also, they found that increasing abrupt could reduce removal efficiency of odors emission and volatile organic compounds.
On the other hand, biotreatment of ammonia can be hard if the input air is not pretreated. As the high amount of ammonia is related with bacterial inhibition, it will lead to a drop in treatment execution. A study on the modeling of ammonia biofiltration illustrated that high concentrations of ammonia can deeply prevent the biological activity of a biofilter system, (Baquerizo et al., 2004). Major ammonia emissions are linked with highly aerobic composting systems and putrescible raw materials, and they are a feature of effective composting, but they need the care to prevent odor problems. The use ammonia is not a major problem for all composting plant (Cornell Waste Management Institute, 1996). It is advisable to understand the reasons for having ammonia emissions at a particular plant and then minimize odor risks by installing ammonia scrubbers before the biofilter stage of air treatment.
Also, if the windrows are aerated, covered and biofilter is regularly used, this will deal with odors problem in sites. Figure 6 shows the effect of VOCs and NH3 emission with and without the cover of the windrows.
The effect of weather on composting process:
The composting process can continue throughout the year. Usually, late summer to early winter is the peak time for compost production. The standard method to produce compost takes between six months and two years to reach maturity (RHS, 2015). However, the amount of time needed to produce compost depends on many factors such as the types of materials, size of the compost pile and the surface area of the materials. Surface area can help the bacteria to break down materials more quickly (BBC, 2014). The direct sunlight and additional warm temperature encourages bacterial activity and helps speed up the composting process.
Furthermore, decomposition of materials will occur regardless of climate if the compost pile is appropriately maintained. In this case, the decomposition of organic materials may slow down, but the process will continue working. Bacteria and other microbes will release heat while they break down the materials into compost. Turning should not be done in the rain and finished compost should be covered by piece of plastic in order to keep it dry (Washington State University, 2014).
Cost of composting:
Intelligent management of waste is an important to minimize risks to human health and the environment. Solid Waste Materials (SWM) contain a large amount recoverable materials, and it may be used for energy recovery, thus, will enhance the environmental sustainability. In order to analyze the solid waste system, it is required to understand environmental performance of each process used for collection, separation, treatment and disposal of municipal solid waste (MSW). The basis of this analysis is to specify the process cost, energy consumption, and environment emissions (Boldrin et al., 2009). Composting can be used for cost-effective waste management (Couth and Trois, 2012).
The current capacity of compost sites is about 41 tons per year. However, the total amount of compost produced was about 17 tons per year and this means only about 42% of the input material was transformed into compost. The rest of the materials were sent to energy facilities for combustion to recover electricity. The operating costs are based on labor, fuel and equipment maintenance. The composting process needs periodic turning, this increases use of fuel for turning equipment’s and some composting facility which amounted to 60 L of diesel per year (Luske, 2010).
Windrow composting process is normally one of the cheapest and effective technologies for composting options. The major capital cost requirements are for screens, front-end loaders, turners, and concrete. Therefore, the capital cost ranges from $40 - $60 per ton (Composting Council of Canada, 2011).
Health and safety:
Composting is a natural process that encourages microorganisms to break down waste material. Involvement of the material that generates dust will lead to creation of bioaerosol, which is a microorganism airborne (Howard et al., 2003). To keep the composting site safe for the employees and neighboring regions, a suitable risk assessment should be done in order to control risks. Also, commitment to the legal provisions for both employers and employees by the Health and Safety at Work, Act 1974 will add benefit to the activites. Furthermore, changing the work process and managing the temperature and moisture levels in the compost pile to limit dust movement can minimize the bioaerosols issue. Also, enough filters should be used on the air intakes of vehicles that are used to move compost. Moreover, respiratory protection equipment should be used at places where bioaerosols are generated. Also, cleaning of hands and eyes are important after leaving the site.
Some previous studies looked into the effect of composting activities on health of nearby residents and found that under certain circumstances composting activities may raise concentrations of bio aerosol above background levels. However, the bioaerosol concentrations are much lower in comparison to the composting site. As a result, there is no evidence of significant increase in health problems in residents near the composting sites (The National Archives, 2013). Also, HSE (2014) study, has found that placing the composting sites at the distance of 250m can reduce the bio aerosol background levels. Therefore, it is suggested to keep the composting sites far from residential areas in order to prevent any potential problems such as odors and noises.
On the other hand, there are some safety concerns that relates to equipment. If heavy equipment is used, protection of ear, ears, eyes are mandatory. Composting process typically contains powerful mixing equipments such as knives and hammers that revolve at a high rate of speed, thus, must be well protected from human contact (Association for Organics Recycling, 2012). Fires are a scarce problem in outdoor composting sites due to the fact that the inside of the windrows is usually moist. However, if the compost pile dries out and gets too hot, combustion may occur. The organic material can burn spontaneously at contents of moisture between 25% and 45 %. Therefore, turning the compost pile is required when the temperatures exceed 60° C. Turning the compost pile not only results into good compost, it also provides fire protection as well (Cornell Waste Management Institute, 1995).
Sustainability:
Sustainability and quality are the key features to accept the composting within agriculture (William & Brinton, 1997). The challenge of sustainability is not only to provide service to the community, but also to reduce the dependence on energy, material, and waste. Therefore, sustainability is based on three main pillars which are social, environment and economy. It is considered as sustainable in many parts of the world (Ladan, 2014).
Social:
Social sustainability has major impact on public life. The composting project will provide many employment opportunities, and, therefore, will reduce the unemployment problems. Moreover, the protection of employees is important in composting. For each season, there should be an assessment that will evaluate the potential risks, causes, and possible measures to limit them. Then, the employees will be able to focus on their job in a safe environment and improve the efficiency of production.
Also, the composting project will increase people’s awareness about environment and its impact on society as whole. It will help them understand how the use of composting project is supporting in the protection of the planet.
Environmental:
Environmental sustainability is one of the major factors to create a successful project and the key to continue towards an environmental friendly future. Compost from waste material project will be environmentally sustainable if it is ensured that the process will not have negative impacts on the environment. Composting is a natural process to speed up the decomposition of organic waste materials, which will help in the reduction of yard waste that enters landfills and water systems.
In the composting process, there are no harmful products that can impact the ozone layer or cause further pollution. Biofiltration system will help to limit and reduce any greenhouse gas emissions during the process. The main sources of carbon dioxide emissions are from the power that is used in sites and the fuel consumption during transportation. As a result, the Carbon footprint for the production of one ton of compost is 129,35 kg CO2e in total (Luske, 2010). However, the level of methane emissions depends on compost site administration and waste types that are used.
The compost site will be more environmentally sustainable by minimizing the power consumption to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions. This can be applied by installing solar panels on the factory roof and through the use of waterpower. Also, as the water is not a renewable resource, the composting process tends to minimize its consumption by treating and recycling the water.
Economic:
The amount of waste is increasing as people needs are increasing. As a result, treatment of waste and composting is one of the major alternatives that looked upon by many municipalities (The University Of British Columbia, 2014). The compost industry aims to be economically sustainable by increasing the production, expanding the plant and creating more jobs. Composting process has become the prevailing methods of waste management in the UK, which accounts for 43.2% of the MSW (Waste Management World 2013).
Recommendation:
Governments can encourage and support the private sector and local community by providing technical help on composting process, techniques and in developing guidelines to implement facilities with low cost. Also, creating compost quality standards and controlling the performance of compost operations will help in the reduction of any potential environmental effects. Moreover, governments should encourage the use of compost by involving itself in awareness campaigns by focusing on the reduction of the chemical fertilizers usages. Through the application of using compost instead of chemical fertilizers, the greenhouse emissions will reduce, and other environmental benefits can be achieved. Furthermore, the agriculture and public works department can form policies to incorporate the idea of using compost in agricultural fields and plantation in the city respectively (The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, 2000).
Conclusion:
Composting has emerged as powerful medium towards sustainable environment and a step towards protecting the planet. Composts derived from this process contain full spectrum of essential plant nutrients that leads to healthy root systems and elimination of synthetic fertilizers usage. Along with that, conversion of dried soil into healthy soil, protects the water resources and increases the ability of soil to retain more water, thus reduces water pollution.
The processes of composting entails attention that is time consuming for individuals and requires lot of attention from selection of right composting tools to the proper site, however, its future benefits cannot be ignored. Also, a step towards composting can help develop a sense of pride of supporting environment.
Composting has seen slow progress in the previous decade, and people are less inclined towards this field of energy consumption. However, it is expected that, a proper understanding of composting procedures can motivate incumbents to take charge of this activity. Once the benefits of composting become visible, more households will flock towards it.
The paper has developed a ground for future studies on composting procedures related to every aspect from associated risks to risk mitigation.
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