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Key Topics
Requirement
The first half of the paper providing a summary of the reading
- A summary provides an overview of the key points. You cannot mention everything the author says within the space you have been provided…don’t try. Provide only the central points of the reading/readings
- Summaries, like outlines, should be objective. Make no references to yourself. In a summary your opinion doesn’t matter; later, when you analyze and evaluate an argument, you can state your opinion and support it.
- A summary is not an abridged copy of the reading…a summary provides some structure for the reader (ex. The author has three main points; the reading provides various interpretations on the notion of justice)
2) The second half providing analysis of the reading.
- This will most likely be an exploration of the key points that you have already mentioned. This can take a variety of forms. You can explain a flaw in the author’s logic. You can apply these key points to a case/situation from another class. Or, you can argue (with support) why you think the author's point is helpful or inadequate.
- Writing a philosophy paper involves more than simply stating your opinions. You must support your views by presenting arguments in favor of them. You should also try to defend your views against potential criticisms. In developing your position on an issue, keep in mind what an intelligent opponent would say in response.
3) Finally, two or three discussion questions should complete the paper.
- There should be three questions that would lead the class in a good discussion surrounding a key theme from the readings. Yes and no questions are not adequate. It should also be clear how the question relates to the text.
Leviathan or the Matter, Forme and Power of a Common-Wealth Ecclesiastical and Civil
Solution
Summary
Thomas Hobbes has discussed his beliefs regarding the downfalls of the government and achieving perfect commonwealth by the humans, in his treatise Leviathan. The book presents various opinions regarding humanity which are presented by Thomas Hobbes with a setback of civil war and strong opinions on its causes and how it can be avoided shortly. Therefore the book gives out a loud call for the undivided and strong government. The work has been considered as a one of the most influential social contract theory.
Book 1: Of Man
This book focuses on human nature where Hobbes explains various aspect related to human nature. He adds that not a single thing about humans is intelligent or divine, straining on the meaninglessness of terms like "evil" and "good." He adds that morality is nowhere connected to human psychology. The author strongly believes that fear of death is the factor which drives human nature.
The absence of government is presented as anarchy by Hobbes which forces the men to be at war continuously and constantly. This leads to deprivation of arts, crops, invention, knowledge, industry, society etc. The fear of death leads to arising of political systems. In this book he has discussed 19 laws of nature where the primary law states that humans are in constant need of peace. Second law of nature asks humans to quit the state of nature and start a Commonwealth instead.Thereby the author stresses on seeking peace and how important it is which can only be attained by commonwealth. ‘For it can never be that war shall preserve life, and peace destroy it’ (Hobbes, page 97). Another 17 laws were added so as to conclude that a sovereign is required for humans for representing them.
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Book 2: Of Commonwealth
This book addresses the list of rights for the sovereign representing the people. After which, three commonwealth types are discussed namely the monarchy, the aristocracy, and the democracy. Hobbes presents the difference between them by stating the sovereign type where a single man (monarchy), group (aristocracy) and everyone (democracy) and adding explicitly that only these are the existing form of government. According to him, the best form of government is monarchy by describing the state of matter ……..”and the life of man, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short” ( Hobbes, Page 78). According to him, the lives are not worth living without existence of a sovereign government. The discussion is then turned towards religion where the sovereign must impose the people with a religion. In case, it is not done, it will lead to a discord by giving example of England. The book end with discussion of taxes. According to him, tax must be equal.
Book 3: Of a Christian Common-Wealth
This book begins with varying attacks being done on the religious writings by repeating again that religion must be provided to people by the government. As per his beliefs, all the sovereigns must be Christians because of the scope of being a good leaders to their people. A varying religious arguments from Books of Samuel, Book of Judges, Books of the Kings, and the two Books of the Chronicles etc. have been presented in this book, signifying his familiarity with religion.
Book 4: Of Kingdom of Darkness
Hobbes does not believe in the concept of hell and therefore, he does not refer to hell while presenting this part of the book. He defines ignorance as the kingdom of darkness. According to him, reading of scriptures leads to discord and ignorance. Fear and not faith is the factor where the Kingdom of Darkness is found. “And this fear of things invisible is the natural seed of that which everyone in himself calleth religion; and in them that worship or fear that power otherwise than they do, superstition.” (Hobbes, 66)
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Hobbes has utilized the moral language expressed in the form of empirical science, precise vocabulary of geometry and physics. Hobbes in this political ethical theory is based on causal-mechanical as well as materialistic metaphysical theory. Hobbes has utilized the scientific and mathematical study in his study and has not incorporated any ethically neutral or value-free perspective. The mechanistic scientific model presented by Hobbes is an explanatory for all type of existence due to the existence of universe with interconnected matter in motion. Hobbes’ has deduced the complex political theory along with a set of ethical arguments using his pessimistic interpretation on the human nature associated with primitive, original or the condition. The self-interests of humans are persuaded competitively due to anarchic, highly unstable and violent state of nature. Using …….. and the life of man, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short”( Hobbes, Page 78), the author has depicted bleak realism. Here the author has admitted to a period of time which might not have occurred and is considered to be highly hypothetical, the evidences can be seen in the civil war times and the ‘savages’ in history. However, the existence of this state of nature is inconsequential because the arguments placed by Hobbes’ are highly psychological instead of being historical in nature. Furthermore, according to Hobbes, his arguments can easily be validated recursively and we can only wait to see if the factors deriving him to state his theory of human nature is valid or not.
Natural human egoistic motivation related to fear of injury and death were primarily and secondly, the passion for material and power possessions justified by the political ethics in Leviathan. One of the most central reason for people and one of their fundamental natural right is self-preservation for entering the commonwealths and state of nature. The author’s articulation regarding the normative egalitarian universal natural rights principles, are expressed along with rejecting the principle of divine kings right radically. Furthermore, his moral relativism is seen to be in conjugation with his rejection of all the moral objectivism claiming that the diverse corporeal nature are a direct explanatory of the value judgments and their multiplicity. The identification of the moral judgments has been discussed to be dependent on their appetites and aversions and also on the various mechanical movements away or may be from the material objects. According to Hobbes, the moral ideas do not exist and he defines good as anything people desire and evil as anything people avoid. This concept can be agreed upon as they only sense of evil and good is generated from the desires and fears of the individual and he articulately presents the correct fact that these concepts of good and evil are absent until these are decreed by the central authority of the society. I personally believe that this foundation and base has positioned Hobbes’ belief towards the absolutist and autocratic form of government.
His thoughts on no summum bonum and finis Ultimus (Hobbes, Page 60) with no universal absolute common good are strikingly different and unique. He has expressed his political theory of authority by justifying it with the means of logical, scientific and rational arguments instead of the political legitimacy and its traditional theories on the basis of theology, convention or the divine rights of kings. By prescribing Commonwealth, the author's advice on being bound by superior power of sovereign for obeying the commands of government irrespective of the sovereign’s intention and moral content on these commands. He has assumed natural insecurity related to human life with absolute monarchy and described it in the most desirablegovernment’sform.
Questions
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The author has attacked metaphor as abusive and improper use of language. Still he has employed strong metaphors for making his argument like Leviathan and state of nature. Why do you think Hobbes has used striking metaphors in the philosophical book condemning the metaphorical language?
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The contemporary critics of Hobbes can accuse him of atheism. Do you agree with the statement? Do you think atheism can be considered to be the correct assessment of the stand taken by Hobbes?
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The social contract or the covenant has been described as the “real unity” by Hobbes among the multitude of those natural men who have chosen to escape this nature state. At the same time, he maintains that "multitude naturally is not One, but Many; they cannot be understood for one." (Hobbes, 101). In case this multitude is not possible to be unity, how can ascertain the claim where social contract has been considered as "real unity"?
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