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Requirement
Critically evaluate non-Probability Samples use in Management Research.
Solution
Introduction
Probability and non-probability samples are amply used in management research to identify the participants for the study. This paper assesses the non-probability samples in detail concerning its application in management research. The initial discussion is regarding the probability and non-probability samples and then it moves on to the discussion related to the benefits and limitations of the non-probability samples. Moreover, the appropriate utility of non-probability samples has been critically analyzed with the inclusion of application of the same in academic and commercial research. Apart from that, the potential issues and implications of the usage of non-probability samples concerning the research design have been discussed. The impacts of this study on the ways research findings can be utilized have been considered. In the end, conclusive remarks have been presented based on the overall study behind the various use of non-probability samples.
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Non-Probability Samples in Management Research
The probability sampling refers to the method that considers the use of random selection. The random selection requires the adoption of process that ensures the each of the units within the entire population has the equal probability of being selected (Schillewaert et al, 1998). The use of random selection has been used for very long beginning with picking a colored paper from a jar or selecting a small pipe. At present, the technological advancements have reduced the human effort and it does most of the number crunching with limited errors. There are various types of probability sampling, namely, simple random sampling, stratified random sampling, systematic random sampling, and cluster random sampling (Cooper et al, 2003). All of these probability sampling techniques have their use in specific cases.
The non-probability sampling is different from the probability sampling in the manner that there are no considerations of random selection in this. Therefore, it is normal to infer that non-probability samples do not represent the whole probability in its true sense. Though it can be true to some extent, but not entirely as the only thing that is absent in this is the rationale of probability theories. In the probability samples one can be at least consider that the whole population had been given opportunity for the selection and there is the chance of estimation of confidence intervals (Tansey, 2007). On the other hand, in the probability samples one cannot be sure whether the whole population has been represented. This is the reason which has kept the researchers oriented towards the probability samples in most of the cases. However, there are circumstances where the utility of probability samples is not feasible such as in the applied social research. Therefore, the consideration of non-probability alternatives seems apt in such circumstances.
Under non-probability sample, the use of “convenience sampling” is the common method. In this method, it depends on the discretion of the researchers to choose someone for the interviews. This method is widely used in reading the opinion of the public over certain issues. The news channels can be found using this form of research and even the local websites conduct such surveys. One example can be the clinical practices where only the available clients are interviewed or those who volunteers to get the understanding of the work done so far. One is free to consider the lack representational capability of the samples brought through convenience method. Another aspect under non-probability sampling is the “purposive sampling”, where the researchers move ahead with sample collection with certain purpose in consideration (Altmann, 1974).
There are certain benefits and limitations of using non-probability samples in management research. The management research refers to the studies conducted to understand the areas concerning the management of organizations (Priem and Butler, 2001). There are various fields of study under it such as marketing including consumer research, finance, economics, and strategy and planning, and others. One of the major benefits in the non-probability sampling is the ease with which a researcher can conduct the research activity with minimum possible cost. The reliance on the non-probability samples is less by the researchers due to the limitations of this method. In this method the researchers look for respondents who are easy to contact. This can be the reason for the biased sample collection (Ferber, 1977). The selection of the respondents depend on the discretion of the researchers and if the researchers hold certain perception about the results they are looking in the research, then it is likely that the collection of the data will orient towards the same perception. This can be considered as one of the limitations of the non-probability samples. Moreover, the models designed under the non-probabilistic sample are difficult to verify and achieving comparable estimates with precision becomes challenging for the researchers.
One of the academic research papers written by Peter and Ryan (1976) uses the convenience sampling technique to understand the risk perception related to the brand of the company products and services. The convenience sample was composed of “217 juniors and seniors enrolled in Business Administration curriculum”. One of the commercial research was conducted by Market Strategies International (2013) using the quota sampling. The purpose was to understand the consumer segment for a CPG Company. The company identified mini-groups in Russian and China that can represent the target population and conducted the research.
The non-probability sample utilizes the qualitative mixed methods (Cresswell and Clark, 2007). There are some opportunities to consider the quantitative research designs also. Yet most of the researchers consider non-probability sampling to be of inferior quality in comparison to the probability sample. The considerations among the researchers are that they tend to use the non-probability sampling only they are left with no opportunity to use the probability sampling. While using the non-probability sample, the comfort level gets shaken only for the researchers who are involved extensively in the quantitative research (Creswell and Clark, 2007). On the other hand, the researchers who use quality research designs feel comfortable with using the non-probability sampling.
Whenever the use of qualitative research design comes into the picture, then the consideration of purposive sampling (one of the various non-probability sampling techniques) can help the researchers in basing their study on the strong theoretical grounds (Janesick, 1994). The use of subjective judgments of the researchers is paramount in the non-probabilistic sampling. The reliance on previous theory and practices from the researchers’ side increases largely. The purpose in the non-probability sample is not to attain objectivity in the selected participants or units. Moreover, it does not even focus on generalizing the findings of the study. The major purpose of the researchers involving in such studies is to understanding the intricacies of the sample they have collected or brought together for the study. It can be stated here that there always stay a desire to generalize the findings that are brought through the non-probabilistic study, but they are of secondary aspect and primary aspect relies on deep study of the samples only.
The presence of bias and transferability is evident in the research conducted through the use of non-probability samples (Fisher, 2000). Another term for transferability is validity that can be referred to either the results obtained through the research or to any of the interim aspects of the research design such as sample selection, questionnaire design and others. The main concern here is the transferability of the results. The results obtained through non-probability samples can be brought in the circle of doubt. The doubt can be over the applicability of its results or the unbiased selection of the samples for the study.
The practical benefits, as stated earlier, of the non-probability sampling is that it is easier and quicker to complete in comparison to the probability sampling (Tansey, 2007). The academicians who are short on time and budget can utilize this method to fulfill their research goal. The only prerequisite is that the researchers must have enough understanding of the type of sample they should choose that leads to the balanced result.
The use of non-probability sampling in the exploratory research can be found beneficial. The exploratory research tries to investigate that whether any kind of issue exists in the area under consideration (Kothari, 2004). In such studies, the non-probability sampling can be of great help. One of the examples can be the consideration of a company’s manager that whether everything is going smoothly within the organizational structure. As there are no evident issues to be researched, the assigned researchers can conveniently pick few participants for study to map possibility of issues. Moreover, if the researchers are sure that certain category of individuals are likely to bring out the issues, then selecting them for the study can be considered in this research design.
The consideration of whether the probability sample should be used or the non-probability sample should be used, depends on the research strategy. There are various types of non-probability sampling that can be chosen for the research design. Earlier, the convenience sampling has been defined in detail along with brief glimpse over the purposive sampling. The other three are discussed below that can also be considered for the particular research design.
The third non-probability sampling is proportional quota sampling. The purpose of this sampling is to reach the sample where the whole group is under the study such as male teacher vs. female teacher and others. Moreover, it should be proportional to the population under research consideration. Quota sampling is best used when obtaining probability sample is challenging, but the goal is to select group of participants that represent the whole population. The issue is that the identification of sampling error is difficult (Owen et al, 1998). The four non-probability sampling is the self-selection sampling. In this method the choice are left on to the respondents on whether they prefer to the join the research being conducted as the subject of the study. The benefit in this method is that the researchers do not need to put any effort for the selection of the units who will be interested enough to contribute effectively to the study. However, one of the challenges in this is that the inherent bias among the visiting volunteers cannot be identified earlier and may impact the research findings. The final non-probability sampling is of snowball sampling. It is utilized when the researchers find it difficult to reach the intended respondent to interview. The snowball sampling technique helps in uncovering the hidden respondents for the study. For instance, if the researcher is interested in studying the group of prostitutes, or the drug addicts, then use of snowball technique can be the best (Biernacki and Waldorf, 1981). However, similar to other non-probability methods, the identification of sampling error is absent in this method.
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Overall it can be stated that non-probability sampling can be stated as the last resort of the researchers after their inability to find something useful in probability sampling techniques. However, it can also be stated that this method is useful for the researchers who are short on time and budget. There are benefits, limitations, as well as issues that have been discussed throughout the paper and it can be said that inability to come up with sampling error in this method is the major issue. Moreover, biasness and transferability has been the cause of concern too.
References
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Altmann, J. (1974). Observational study of behavior: sampling methods. Behaviour, 49(3), 227-266.
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Biernacki, P., & Waldorf, D. (1981). Snowball sampling: Problems and techniques of chain referral sampling. Sociological methods & research, 10(2), 141-163.
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Cooper, D. R., Schindler, P. S., & Sun, J. (2003). Business research methods.
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Creswell, J. W., & Clark, V. L. P. (2007). Designing and conducting mixed methods research.
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Ferber, R. (1977). Research by convenience. Journal of Consumer Research, 4(1), 57-58.
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Fisher, R. J. (2000). The future of social-desirability bias research in marketing. Psychology and Marketing, 17(2), 73-77.
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Janesick, V. J. (1994). The dance of qualitative research design: Metaphor, methodolatry, and meaning.
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Kothari, C. R. (2004). Research methodology: Methods and techniques. New Age International.
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Marketing Strategy International, (2013). Bringing Consumer Segments to Life for a CPG Company. Marketstrategies.com.
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Owen, L., McNeill, A., & Callum, C. (1998). Trends in smoking during pregnancy in England, 1992-7: quota sampling surveys. Bmj, 317(7160), 728-730.
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Peter, J. P., & Ryan, M. J. (1976). An investigation of perceived risk at the brand level. Journal of marketing research, 184-188.
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Priem, R. L., & Butler, J. E. (2001). Is the resource-based “view” a useful perspective for strategic management research?. Academy of management review, 26(1), 22-40.
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Schillewaert, N., Langerak, F., & Duhamel, T. (1998). Non-probability sampling for WWW surveys: a comparison of methods. International Journal of Market Research, 40(4), 307.
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Tansey, O. (2007). Process tracing and elite interviewing: a case for non-probability sampling. PS: Political Science & Politics, 40(04), 765-772.
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